Despite substantial investment in pharmaceutical R&D, clinical success rates remain low. As it stands, 90 % of drug candidates entering human trials fail due to unforeseen toxicity or limited efficacy in humans. A key contributor to this attrition is the limited predictive power of traditional preclinical models, particularly 2D cell cultures and animal studies, which often fall short in recapitulating the complexity of human biology. This gap is particularly evident in oncology and organ-specific toxicity assessments, where cellular context and microenvironmental interactions play a critical role in drug response.
Read on